Are There Heavy Metals in Your Salt? Safest Options for Clean Eating

by Sophia Ruan Gushée. Updated since initial posting to include heavy metal testing results from Only Salt and Crucial Four.

Salt is a kitchen essential, prized for its ability to enhance flavor and preserve food. However, not all salts are created equal. Recent research has revealed that many salt products contain heavy metals like lead, mercury, cadmium, and aluminum. How serious are these health risks to consumers?

In my search for the healthiest salt for my family, I began by examining nutritional benefits of salt. Eventually, I learned about microplastics in salt (which you can learn more about in this article "Why You Should Avoid Microplastics & Nanoplastics in Salt: The Hidden Danger and How to Protect Yourself") and heavy metals in salt. 

The presence of heavy metals in various types of salt is a growing concern for health-conscious consumers and public health. Understanding which salts are more susceptible to contamination can help you make informed dietary choices.

In this article, you'll learn the sources of heavy metal contamination in salt, the safest products on the market, and actionable tips for choosing relatlvely clean salt options as I hunt for, Which salt has the least heavy metals? 

D-Tox Academy members: Read my personal shopping list for salt in Pillar 6: Kitchen Detox. 

What Are Heavy Metals, and Why Are They Found in Salt?

Heavy metals are naturally occurring elements that can pose serious health risks especially when consumed in excessive amounts. While salts are often valued for their mineral content, some contain harmful levels of heavy metals. 

Common Heavy Metals in Salt: Aluminum, Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, and Mercury

Of the data that I reviewed, the most common heavy metals tested in salt are aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury. Generally, these heavy metals are neurotoxic and some are recognized as cancer-causing in humans. 

1. Aluminum. A neurotoxin, aluminum can accumulate and be retained in the brain, contributing towards both the onset and the aggressive progression of all forms of Alzheimer Disease. Accumulation of aluminum in neurons has been related to cognitive and motor impairments, mostly related with neurodegenerative diseases and functional impairment at low doses. (Martinez et al., 2018)
2. Arsenic. Considered a potent neurotoxin, arsenic (as a single element) and inorganic arsenic compounds are also classified as “carcinogenic to humans” by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Arsenic can cross the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in different regions of the brain suggesting its role in neurological diseases. (Prakash et al., 2016)

3. Cadmium: A neurotoxin, cadmium is also linked to kidney damage, bone demineralization, and an increased risk of cancer. It was ranked as the 7th most hazardous substance to human health by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, and a known human carcinogen by the Department of Health and Human Services. (Arruebarrena et al, 2023)

4. Lead: While lead is "a systemic toxicant affecting virtually every organ system, [it] primarily affects the central nervous system," and the developing brain is particularly vulnerable. Consequently, children are at a greater risk than adults of suffering from the neurotoxic effects of lead exposure. Children and pregnant women should be especially protected from lead exposure. (Sanders et al, 2009) It's been long established that there's no detectable level of lead that's safe for children, and that lead is also stored in bones for decades.  

5. Mercury: Known for its neurotoxic effects, mercury can impair cognitive function, memory, and motor skills over time. 

How Heavy Metals End Up in Salt (e.g., natural deposits, environmental pollution)

Heavy metals exist throughout our natural environments. That's why they're often found in what we eat. This is why, for example, arsenic in rice is not uncommon and, therefore, arsenic has been found in rice by-products (like rice crackers, rice syrup, rice cereal, etc.).

Similarly, the presence of heavy metals in the environments from which salt is extracted can influence heavy metals in salt. Salt contamination often arises from environmental pollution. For instance, sea salts can absorb pollutants from ocean water or if they’re exposed to air pollutants (which you can imagine from the following image), while mined salts may contain impurities from geological deposits (PubMed).

In addition, you can see in the following image that using heavy machinery and explosives in mining can also introduce heavy metal contamination in salt. Salt can also be contaminated by heavy metals during the processing stage. 

In summary, heavy metals find their way into salts through both natural and human-made processes.

• Natural Deposits: Certain types of salt, like Himalayan pink salt and rock salts, are mined from ancient geological formations that may contain trace amounts of heavy metals. These metals occur naturally in the earth’s crust and can accumulate in mineral-rich salt deposits.

• Environmental Pollution: Sea salts are particularly vulnerable to contamination from heavy metals like mercury and lead due to industrial waste, plastic pollution, and other toxins released into the ocean. Microplastics in seawater can also bind to heavy metals, further contributing to salt contamination. Some salt manufacturing processes involve the salt being exposed in open fields, during which salt can become contaminated by air pollutants.

• Agricultural and Industrial Runoff: Water sources near salt production areas can become polluted by agricultural pesticides and industrial waste, introducing heavy metals into the salt harvested from these regions.

• Salt Extraction and Manufacturing Processes. Salt can be contaminated during these stages and approaches.

The Health Risks of Consuming Heavy Metals in Salt

Consuming salt contaminated with heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium poses significant health risks especially for developing brains. These toxic elements can accumulate in the body over time, leading to both immediate and long-term health issues. For those who hope to have children, you should know that your body burden of heavy metals can effect your future children.

Short-Term Effects of Heavy Metal Exposure

Acute toxicity from heavy metals in salt is not common. However, pregnant women and children should be especially protected from any heavy metal exposure because the developing brain is uniquely vulnerable to heavy metals like lead, which can cause permanent effects on intelligence and behavior. Salt is often a source of heavy metal exposure among many other sources. So cut down when possible.

The Cleveland Clinic reports that common symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and a general feeling of weakness. Some individuals may also experience chills or a low body temperature, as well as a scratchy sensation in the throat. Neurological symptoms such as numbness or a prickly feeling in the hands and feet can also occur. 

Short-Term Health Effects include:

• Gastrointestinal Distress: Ingesting heavy metals can cause nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.

• Neurological Symptoms: Acute exposure may result in headaches, dizziness, and cognitive difficulties.

Heavy metals in salt will most likely not create acute exposure. Chronic exposure and long-term health risks is more likely to be relevant.

Long-Term Health Risks: Toxicity, Hormonal Disruption, and More

Heavy metals can accumulate in the body. This body burden of heavy metals (and toxic chemicals) can be shared with your unborn children. For example, mothers share her body burden during pregnancy and through breastmilk (the benefits of breastmilk often outweigh the risks).

Heavy metals can contribute to neurological damage, kidney issues, and other chronic health problems. Lead and cadmium, for example, are classified as probable human carcinogens, while mercury can affect brain development, especially in children and pregnant women (PubMed).

Chronic, low-dose exposure to heavy metals in salt can lead to long-term health consequences. For example, the "nervous system is particularly vulnerable to prolonged, low-dose cadmium exposure" (Arruebarrena et al, 2023). Prolonged accumulation of heavy metals in the body has been linked to neurological issues, including cognitive decline and memory impairment, and endocrine disruption, leading to hormonal imbalances, and an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. Furthermore, certain heavy metals increase the risk of various cancers. (AHA Journals)

Long-Term Health Risks include:

• Neurological Damage: Chronic exposure to heavy metals like lead and mercury is linked to cognitive decline, memory loss, increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases, Parkinson’s disease, hearing loss, age-related cataracts, glaucoma, and other chronic conditions (Chen et al, 2016, Althomali et al, 2024, Ebrahimi et al, 2024).

• Kidney Damage: Heavy metals can induce oxidative stress in the kidneys, leading to nephrotoxicity and impaired renal function (Sabatha and Robles-Osorio, 2012). 

• Carcinogenic Potential: Prolonged exposure to certain heavy metals has been associated with an increased risk of cancer. Arsenic (As) and cadmium (Cd), detected in the salt products in Tables 1 and 2 below, are classified as Group 1 carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (Abdi et al, 2021, Zhu and Costa, 2020).

• Unknown future risks to you, your children, and your grandchildren. Since heavy metals are stored in the body, how it participates in your future might be impossible to be predict. However, it's known that a woman's body burden, or load of chemicals and heavy metals, can be shared with her children in utero and through breastmilk. For example, lead can be stored in your bones for up to 30 years.

Remember that chronic, low-level exposure can contribute to adverse health effects especially because heavy metals can accumulate in your body. Pregnant women and children should be especially mindful since the developing brain is uniquely vulnerable to the harmful effects of heavy metals.

Which Types of Salt Are Most Likely to Contain Heavy Metals?

The presence of heavy metals in various types of salt is a growing concern for health-conscious consumers. Understanding which salts are more susceptible to contamination can help in making informed dietary choices.

Himalayan Pink Salt: The Good and the Bad

Often praised for its trace mineral content and distinctive flavor, Himalayan pink salt is also often contaminated with microplastics and heavy metals. Research analyzing pink salt samples available in Australia found one sample that contained levels of lead that exceeded the national maximum contaminant level set by Food Standards Australia New Zealand, posing potential health risks. (Fayet-Moore et al, 2020)

Sea Salt: Nutritional Benefits vs. Contamination Risks

Also valued for its natural mineral content and minimal processing, sea salt is also contaminated with microplastics and heavy metals from environmental pollution. Studies have detected heavy metals and microplastics in various sea salt brands, raising questions about their purity and safety. Consumers should be aware of these potential contaminants when choosing sea salt.

Rock and Well Salts: Natural Sources, but Not Always Pure

Rock salts, including well salts, are mined from underground deposits and are often considered more natural alternatives. However, the mineral composition of these salts can vary, and some may contain microplastics and heavy metals. It's essential to choose rock salts from reputable sources that provide information on their mineral content and purity. 

Third-Party Tested Salt Brands with the Least Heavy Metals

I was delighted to learn that laboratory tests of salt brands exist! Before we get to third-party tested salt brands with the least heavy metals, let's address, What does third-party testing for salt purity mean?

I reviewed dozens of studies on salt that were published in peer-reviewed journals and other trusted sources. These studies didn't reveal insights on specific salt products or brands. This review covered different types of salt—sea salt, Himalayan pink salt, course salt, table salt, etc.—from various countries, I was looking for patterns. Wondering, for example, Is terrestrial salt (salt from land) less contaminated than sea salt? Or, Is salt from some parts of the world more risky than others?

In addition, I reviewed results of salt products tested in laboratories. Results of lab-tested salt products are summarized in Table 1 (below). They came from the following:

1. Mamavation sent 23 salt products to an EPA-certified laboratory to test for aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead, and microplastics. Good news: While the aforementioned heavy metals were detected in all salt products, the levels were lower than what would require a Prop. 65 warning based on serving size per day.
2. LeadSafeMama also laboratory-tested salt products like Redmond Real Salt, Saltverk Hand Harvested Flaky (white) Sea Salt, Jacobsen Salt Company Pure Kosher Sea Salt, and Jacobsen Salt Company Pure Italian Fine Sea Salt. As you can see in the Table 1 below, you shouldn't assume that if a brand sells one really "clean" product that all of its products are equally as nontoxic.
3. Salt manufacturers/brands also provided test results. Since they might be biased in their testing, you should be aware of them. They are summarized in Table 2 and include the brands Crucial Four, Redmond Real Salt, and Vera Salt. Results from laboratory tests about a given salt product, like Redmond Real Salt, were sometimes contradictory as you can see in Table 1 below. These have endnotes (7), (8), (9), and (10). 

I consider results from 1 and 2 above the most "third-party" tested because the testing, by Mamavation and LeadSafeMama, was conducted by those who don't have ownership interests in the salt brands. While results from 3 above were conducted by laboratories, the studies were paid for by the manufacturer, who is inevitably biased, so consider that when deciding which salt you want to consume regularly. In the tables below, results from category 3 above have endnotes 7-10.

Below are two tables that summarize the amount of heavy metals detected in select salt products that were tested by Mamavation, LeadSafeMama, Crucial Four, and Vera Salt. Mamavation and LeadSafeMama have test results for many more salt products. In Table 1 below, I selected salt products to include those that I use in my home or that I often see in the stores that I frequent.

How to Choose Safer, Cleaner Salt for Your Health

I spent at approximately 60 hours scouring through all the information that supports this article (and another 60 hours studying microplastics in salt). From my research, I noticed some greenwashing by brands that claim to laboratory test their products. Patterns I noticed include:

• Claiming to be laboratory tested but not providing more information about the results.
• Presenting test results in parts per million (ppm), which would appear to be a much smaller number. Most test results appeared in parts per billion (ppb). One ppm is equivalent to 1,000 ppb.
• The laboratory testing may be designed to influence an outcome that's beneficial to the manufacturer. A lot more detail and time is needed to assess this, and I didn't approach this research rabbit hole.

The salt products in Table 2 below were tested by their own manufacturers so the results might be flawed. Redmond Real Salt, which I really enjoy the taste of and energy from, has attracted a lot of contradictory data. It's such a popular salt that I'm sure more information will surface. To stay tuned, be sure to register for the Ruan Living newsletter. To stay most current on the salt products—and other household staples—that I choose for my home, join Ruan Living's D-Tox Academy. 

Tips For Choosing Safer, Cleaner Salt For Your Health

Choosing the right salt for your health involves more than selecting a product based on taste or marketing claims. Salt can be a hidden source of heavy metals and contaminants, so understanding how to identify safer, cleaner options is essential. Below are some practical tips to help you make informed decisions when purchasing salt.

When deciding what kind of salt, remember that there may be tradeoffs in how processed the salt is. Highly processed salt, like conventional table salt, may have fewer levels of contaminants but may have fewer nutrients as well. While minimally processed salt, which may have retained more natural minerals, may also have higher levels of contaminants like heavy metals.

When shopping for salt, consider the following tips.

1) Source Transparency 

Look for brands that disclose from which geographic regions their salt is sourced from, and how the salt is extracted, processed, and any testing processes and results. This should be available on the product's website.

2) Look for Third-Party Testing Certifications

Opt for products tested for heavy metals by independent labs or certifications. The information is even more meaningful if the testing was not pursued by the manufacturer but by an independent party.

Third-party testing is one of the best ways to ensure that the salt you’re consuming is free from harmful contaminants, including heavy metals and microplastics. Reputable brands often publish test results or provide certifications that verify their products meet strict safety standards.

Certifications from independent labs ensure that their products are not only safe but also meet purity and quality benchmarks. Prioritizing third-party-tested salts minimizes the risk of exposure to heavy metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium.

Be mindful of potential greenwashing (mentioned earlier) and that some of the results in Table 1 above are from the manufacturer and these are highlighted in Table 2. Their test results have endnotes ranging from 7-10.

3) Popular laboratory-tested salts

When selecting salt brands that prioritize purity and safety, consider those that conduct rigorous third-party testing to ensure minimal heavy metal content. Below are three brands that provided laboratory tests. Continue to evaluate them critically and do not have a false sense of security.

Redmond Real Salt: Lab-Tested, and USA-Sourced

Redmond Real Salt is an ancient sea salt mined in Utah, USA. Third-party tests (by Mamavation and LeadSafeMama) have found very high levels of heavy metals in Redmond Real Salt, which you can see in Table 1. However, Redmond Real Salt has provided its own laboratory testing that show much safer levels so results are contradictory. To learn more, click here: Are there heavy metals in Real Salt?.  

Crucial Four Icelandic Flake Sea Salt: A Sustainable Delight

Crucial Four sells two products: mSalt and Icelandic Flake Sea Sal. The company claims its products leave zero carbon footprint and have zero microplastics. Produced with geothermal energy from Iceland's hot springs, Crucial Four explains that its pristine source of seawater used and Iceland's stringent environmental standards lower the risk of microplastic contamination compared to sea salts from more polluted waters.

While the salts are reported to have relatively low heavy metals, after receiving test results from Crucial Four, you can see in Tables 1 and 2 that it has higher levels of heavy metals than other salt brands.

Vera Salt

Vera Salt shares results of its third-party testing of microplastics and heavy metals on its website, which explains:

Vera Salt is microplastic free because of our meticulous sourcing process. We source our salt from pristine springs in Spain, far away from sources of industrial pollution where microplastics can be a problem. Unlike sea salts that may come into contact with microplastics present in the oceans, our spring-sourced salt is inherently free from these contaminants. Furthermore, to confirm our claims, we regularly conduct third-party lab tests to ensure our salt is 100% microplastic-free.

You can see in Tables 1 and 2 that it has higher levels of heavy metals than other salt brands.

Jacobsen Salt Co Sea Salt

This is what LeadSafeMama chooses for her family. See details in Table 1.

4) Understand Labeling and Purity Claims

Labels like "pure," "natural," or "unrefined" can be misleading unless backed by evidence. Always look beyond marketing buzzwords to understand the actual source of the salt, its mineral composition, and transparency in its laboratory testing if that's the case (as mentioned earlier in this article).

For instance, Himalayan pink salt may contain trace minerals beneficial to health, but it can also harbor heavy metals and microplastics if not properly sourced or tested. Similarly, sea salts might claim to be "natural," but contamination from microplastics or environmental pollutants could compromise their safety. Check for detailed product descriptions, lab reports, and ingredient transparency to make an informed purchase.

Also, look for California Proposition 65 Warning on the product label or manufacturer's website.

5) Packaging Materials Can Help Reduce Contaminants in Salt

Choose salts packaged in glass or food-safe materials to avoid chemical leaching and microplastics in salt from plastic packaging.

6) Tips for Storing Salt to Maintain Quality

Proper storage of salt is crucial for maintaining its quality and preventing contamination. Follow these tips:

• Store salt in airtight glass or ceramic containers to protect it from moisture and airborne pollutants.
• Avoid plastic or metal containers, as they may leach chemicals or heavy metal over time.
• Keep salt away from direct sunlight, which can alter its composition.

By storing salt properly, you're minimizing further contamination.

Tips to Protect Yourself From Heavy Metal Exposure

In addition to reducing your heavy metal exposure, your diet can provide protective nutrients. In a 2022 article "Lead and Children: No Amount of Lead is Safe" for Columbia University Irving Medical Center, Vicki Iannoti, MD, a pediatrician and assistant professor of pediatrics at Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, provides the following tips to protect yourself from the damaging effects of lead exposure. She advises that:

• Iron can reduce the amount of lead absorbed through the GI tract and into the bloodstream.
• Calcium can reduce the amount of lead delivered to the brain and other organs.
• Vitamin C is helpful because it helps the body absorb iron and calcium. 

Conclusion: Prioritize Safety and Nutrition in Your Salt Choices

Salt is an essential part of our diet, but not all salts are created equal. The presence of heavy metals in salt seems unavoidable, but some salt manufacturers are pursuing salt extraction and processing mindfully to sell the purest salt possible.

Increasingly, you may notice more salt products that have been laboratory tested for heavy metals, toxic chemicals, microplastics, and nanoplastics. After spending approximately 120 hours researching salts, Table 3 highlights the ones that stand out to me as being among the "cleanest" salts. 

Heavy metal contamination in salt is concerning. By selecting products with proven safety records, you can make informed choices and avoid the most contaminated salt products. Diamond Crystal Kosher Salt (Amazon affiliate link) is an excellent choice and will become my family's staple salt. For those requiring iodized salt, prioritize options tested for purity to enjoy its benefits without compromising safety.

Diamond Crystal Kosher Salt earned a Ruan Living "Love" Sticker (upper left corner of the box).

I'd like to share that I expect things to change: environmental pollution might change the purity of the salt products in Table 3; new great clean salts may become available as manufacturers recognize the demand for clean, healthy salt; and additional testing will reveal conflicting data. I recognize that I don't have as much information on Diamond Crystal Kosher Salt as I do for other brands so more information may lead me to choose a different product. I will revisit this issue and share updates including through my Practical Nontoxic Living podcast. The best way to stay connected on any of my updates is to receive the Ruan Living newsletter or become a D-Tox Academy member to follow my latest product selections for my family.

If you have recommendations, please share them [email protected] or @ruanliving on most social media platforms.

Image above is an excerpt from the Ruan Living Shopping Guides, which are included in the D-Tox Academy. Click here to learn more: D-Tox Academy.

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Sources for Heavy Metals in Salt

Abdi et al, 2021. Abdi L, Jahed-Khaniki GR, Molaee-Aghaee E, Shariatifar N, Nazmara S, Mousavi Khaneghah A. The preliminary survey on the concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in salt samples collected from Tehran, Iran: a probabilistic health risk assessment. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2021 Nov;28(44):62651-62661. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-14720-w. Epub 2021 Jul 2. PMID: 34212337.

Akinyemi AJ, Oboh G, Ademiluyi AO, Araoye OO, Oyeleye SI. Dietary inclusion of local salt substitutes induces oxidative stress and renal dysfunction in rats. Rev Environ Health. 2014;29(4):355-61. doi: 10.1515/reveh-2014-0038. PMID: 24829193.

Althomali et al, 2024. Althomali, R.H., Abbood, M.A., Saleh, E.A.M. et al. Exposure to heavy metals and neurocognitive function in adults: a systematic review. Environ Sci Eur 36, 18 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-00843-7

Arruebarrena et al, 2023. Arruebarrena MA, Hawe CT, Lee YM, Branco RC. Mechanisms of Cadmium Neurotoxicity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(23):16558. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms242316558

Bakulski KM, Seo YA, Hickman RC, Brandt D, Vadari HS, Hu H, Park SK. Heavy Metals Exposure and Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias. J Alzheimers Dis. 2020;76(4):1215-1242. doi: 10.3233/JAD-200282. PMID: 32651318; PMCID: PMC7454042.

Chen et al, 2016. Chen P, Miah MR, Aschner M. Metals and Neurodegeneration. F1000Res. 2016 Mar 17;5:F1000 Faculty Rev-366. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.7431.1. PMID: 27006759; PMCID: PMC4798150.

Cheraghali et al, 2010. Cheraghali AM, Kobarfard F, Faeizy N. Heavy metals contamination of table salt consumed in iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2010 Spring;9(2):129-32. PMID: 24363718; PMCID: PMC3862059.

Ebrahimi et al, 2024. Ebrahimi M, Ebrahimi M, Vergroesen JE, Aschner M, Sillanpää M. Environmental exposures to cadmium and lead as potential causes of eye diseases. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2024 Mar;82:127358. doi: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2023.127358. Epub 2023 Dec 9. PMID: 38113800.

Fayet-Moore et al, 2020. Fayet-Moore F, Wibisono C, Carr P, Duve E, Petocz P, Lancaster G, McMillan J, Marshall S, Blumfield M. An Analysis of the Mineral Composition of Pink Salt Available in Australia. Foods. 2020 Oct 19;9(10):1490. doi: 10.3390/foods9101490. PMID: 33086585; PMCID: PMC7603209.

Sabatha and Robles-Osorio, 2012. Ernesto Sabatha, M. Ludivina Robles-Osorio. "Renal health and the environment: heavy metal nephrotoxicity." Nefrologia. Vol. 32. Issue. 3.May 2012, Pages 275-418

Fayet-Moore F, Wibisono C, Carr P, Duve E, Petocz P, Lancaster G, McMillan J, Marshall S, Blumfield M. An Analysis of the Mineral Composition of Pink Salt Available in Australia. Foods. 2020 Oct 19;9(10):1490. doi: 10.3390/foods9101490. PMID: 33086585; PMCID: PMC7603209.

Martinez et al., 2018. Caroline Silveira Martinez, Gema Vera, José Antonio Uranga Ocio, Franck Maciel Peçanha, Dalton Valentim Vassallo, Marta Miguel, Giulia Alessandra Wiggers. Aluminum exposure for 60days at an equivalent human dietary level promotes peripheral dysfunction in rats. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry,
Volume 181, 2018, Pages 169-176, ISSN 0162-0134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2017.08.011.

Prakash et al., 2016. Prakash C, Soni M, Kumar V. Mitochondrial oxidative stress and dysfunction in arsenic neurotoxicity: A review. J Appl Toxicol. 2016 Feb;36(2):179-88. doi: 10.1002/jat.3256. Epub 2015 Oct 29. PMID: 26510484.

Sanders et al, 2009. Sanders T, Liu Y, Buchner V, Tchounwou PB. Neurotoxic effects and biomarkers of lead exposure: a review. Rev Environ Health. 2009 Jan-Mar;24(1):15-45. doi: 10.1515/reveh.2009.24.1.15. PMID: 19476290; PMCID: PMC2858639.

Zhu and Costa, 2020. Zhu Y, Costa M. Metals and molecular carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis. 2020 Sep 24;41(9):1161-1172. doi: 10.1093/carcin/bgaa076. PMID: 32674145; PMCID: PMC7513952.

World Heart Organization, 2024. Lead poisoning. 27 September 2024.

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Table 1, 2, and 3 footnotes.

(1) LeadSafeMama. Posted:July 18, 2024. Updated:November 24, 2024. "Independent Third-Party Laboratory Testing Confirms Redmond Real Salt Tests Positive for Unsafe Levels of Lead and Arsenic (July 2024) "Salt should be below 100 ppb Lead to be considered safe for regular daily consumption"

(2) Mamavation, December 12, 2023. Sea Salt & Himalayan Salt Tested For Heavy Metals Like Lead & Microplastics — Guide. No salt product had high enough microplastics that could be conclusively recognized through Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopic imaging. “Microplastics were found, but they were not in high enough levels for the test to conclusively recognize what type of microplastics they were.”

(3) LeadSafeMama, posted September 2024. "Saltverk Hand Harvested Flaky (white ) Sea Salt from Iceland tests positive for Arsenic — August 2024 lab report."

(4) LeadSafeMama. Posted:October 21, 2020. Updated:July 19, 2024. "How much Lead is in salt? Which salt is safest to use for cooking? Is Himalayan salt safe? "Salt should be below 100 ppb Lead to be considered safe for regular daily consumption"

(5) LeadSafeMama. Posted:July 25, 2024. Updated:October 28, 2024. "July 2024 Laboratory Test Results for Jacobsen Salt Co. Pure Kosher Sea Salt from Netarts Bay, Oregon."

(6) LeadSafeMama. Posted:September 18, 2024. Updated:September 20, 2024. "Jacobsen Salt Company’s Pure Italian Fine Sea Salt (from Trapani, Italy) tests positive for Lead — September 2024 lab report."

7) Comparing 6 Common Salt Types & Differences in Toxic Content. Results provided by salt manufacturer, Crucial Four. Accessed on Crucial Four website on January 28, 2025 and received additional results January 28-30, 2025.

8) Test results provided by Vera Salt. Accessed on January 29, 2025. 

9) Test results provided by Redmond Real Salt. Accessed on January 29, 2025. 

10) Test results provided by Only Salt. Examined under a microscope by a lab.